COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

This page defines Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), introduces the principles of CLT, explain how to structure a Task-based Learning (TBL) lesson, provides classroom activities for use in a TBL lesson, and discusses the role of the teacher in a TBL lesson.

What is Communicative Language Teaching?

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to language teaching, rather than a specific methodology. This approach rests on the idea that the primary use of language is communication, and the end goal of SLA is to reach communicative competence. The focus is on real-life, as opposed to decontextualized, situations (Brandl, p. 5).

As an approach, rather than a methodology, there is no one specific method that is authoritative in utilizing CLT in the language learning classroom. Instead, CLT encompasses many different methods and materials as appropriate to the context of the target language. Additionally, CLT is based upon many theories in cognitive science, educational psychology, and SLA, and thus, merges oppositional viewpoints and allows CLT to be broad-reaching in terms of providing communicative competency to learners (Brandl, pgs. 6-7).

While there is no unified or authoritative methodology for CLT, CLT approaches typically share these common characteristics:

 Learners must interact frequently to exchange information and solve problems.

 Learning focuses on authentic texts and "real-world" contexts.

 Learning is learner-centered and the teacher's role is to facilitate learning (Brandl, p. 7).

Since the primary role of the CLT approach is to facilitate communication, and a subsidiary role is to solve problems, CLT is a clear proponent of critical thinking as the act of problem-solving engages higher-order thinking (see Bloom's Taxonomy).

The next section discusses some associated principles with CLT and introduces one commonly used language learning methodology – Task-based Instruction, otherwise known as Task-based Learning (TBL). For our purposes, we will refer to TBL in subsequent sections.

Principles of Communicative Language Teaching

Outlined below are five principles surrounding CLT with overviews of each. While the source material which informed this section details eight principles, the five chosen for this learning module are those which are explicitly related to the correlation of CLT and engendering critical thinking.

1) Use tasks as the organizing principle

The first principle asserts that curriculum should use tasks, rather than grammar topics or texts, as the organizing element in syllabus design. The theory underlying this is that a language is being learned so that it can be used, so teachers must create opportunities for contextualized language use (Brandl, p. 8). This principle gave rise to Task-based learning (TBL).

However, TBL should not be incorporated wholesale into every aspect of a syllabus, but should be the end goal following structured pedagogical processes (such as linguistic and metalinguistic learning processes which typically occur in presentation of target language and controlled and less controlled practice opportunities) (Brandl, p. 9). Teachers cannot expect learners to complete tasks that the learners do not have the necessary "tools" to accomplish.

For example, if the end goal of a lesson is for students to determine an itinerary for a visit abroad, the learners will still need to be introduced to the necessary vocabulary and grammatical/functional structures prior to engaging in the task. Due to the scope of TBL, teachers need to use discretion in choosing suitable contexts at suitable points in a course progression.

2) Understand that learners learn by doing

The second principle's foundation lies in the level of learners' engagement with the target language. Simply put, if the learners are given a relevant, interesting, and applicable task to perform, the chances that learners will be engaged are much higher.

Consider this: Of the two situations listed below, which situation is more interesting for the learners?

1. Learners copy down vocabulary from the board and individually write sentences using the structure

2. Learners are asked to work in small groups to write a short dialog to present in front of the class using the vocabulary and grammar on the board.

Furthermore, which situation listed above would result in a greater sense of accomplishment and consequently more self-confidence in learners once the task has been completed, evaluated, and reflected upon? Finally, which situation is more personally significant to the learners?

3) Provide rich input through authentic texts

Authentic texts, as opposed to texts created specifically for language learning, contain real language used in real-world situations. Accordingly, authentic texts, when adapted appropriately, are rich sources of materials in planning and conducting TBL lessons. Not only are the learners provided with relevant materials, but teachers are also allowed creativity to a greater degree in choosing materials and using them according to their own teaching style and

the learning style of their students (Brandl, p. 13).

Moreover, using authentic texts creates the need for teaching learning strategies early on, which is beneficial in any aspect of learning, not simply language learning (Brandl, p. 13).

Authentic texts come from a wide range of sources and the availability of technology in schools makes using these materials easier than before. YouTube videos, short films such as those found on film-english.com, mp3 and mp4 format audio and video clips, online newspapers, social networking – these are just a few examples of authentic texts which can be used in the contemporary language learning classroom.

4) Make learning cooperative and collaborative

Much research supports cooperative and collaborative learning (i.e. working with others to complete tasks using the target language). The primary reason that these strategies are so effective is because the act of working with others creates a social situation in which learners must be active, rather than passive, participants who must negotiate meaning with their peers and teacher (Brandl, p. 14).

Depending on the task, this kind of interaction can promote challenge by creating situations that are above the present level of the learners, but should be structured in such a way that other learners and/or the teacher will help each other reach their full potential (Brandl, p. 14).

However, teachers must be cautious in planning these types of activities. Challenge can be motivating if it is achievable, yet demotivating if it is unachievable. When managed correctly, these types of cooperative and collaborative tasks have some of the greatest potential for making that shift from the teacher-centered classroom to the student-centered classroom.

5) Give effective error correction and feedback

Error correction and feedback are essential components of any language learning lesson, but these stages are even more crucial in TBL lessons (this will be more clearly illustrated in the following section on "Structuring a Task-based Learning Lesson). For these aspects of a TBL lesson to be most beneficial, and to encourage higher-order thinking skills such as evaluation, these stages of the lesson must accomplish two goals:

Error correction and feedback must be reflective,

Error correction and feedback must result in learner-generated knowledge.

Thus, learners must reflect on the task and determine for themselves where the errors occurred, how to fix the errors, why the errors occurred in the first place, and other such metacognitive tasks. Without the presence of both of these factors, error corrective feedback has little to no actual learning benefit.

Structuring a Task-based Learning lesson

As discussed above, the goal of CLT is to provide learners with activities that come as close to "real-world" situations as possible. An underlying principle of Task-based Learning (TBL) is that there are six main types of activities which create these "real-world" opportunities. These are listed below along with examples of each type of activity:

1. Listing tasks

Learners work in groups to create a list of ten items to have on a deserted island.

2. Sorting and ordering

Learners create a list of personality traits and order them from most to least desirable traits to have in a best friend

3. Comparing

Learners compare living in the city versus living in the countryside.

4. Problem-solving

Learners write "Dear Abby" style letters of advice to their classmates.

5. Sharing personal experience

Learners discuss their reactions to a news article about poaching.

6. Creative tasks

Learners prepare a menu and concept design for a theme restaurant.(Richards, p. 31-32)

Of the activity types listed above, all of the activities provide ample opportunity for using CLT approaches and engaging learners in higher-order thinking tasks.

The structure of a TBL lesson typically involves the following stages:

1. Pre-task or lead-in

a. The teacher introduces the task/problem/

context and engages the learners’ interest

in the topic.

2. Task cycle

a. Task: The learners perform the task

b. Planning: Learners prepare their report in

detail and rehearse if necessary.

c. Report and reading: Learners present their

reports and assess their performance.

This may involve checking against a suggested

response to the task.

3. Language focus

a. Analysis: Learners are drawn to read a text/listen

to a text associated with the task and analyze the text

for target language elements (i.e. vocabulary, syntax,

grammatical structures).

b. Practice: Learners are set practice activities (Harmer (2), 2007).

Depending on the approach that the teacher chooses, TBL may follow a different order of stages and any of these additional stages may occur, – such as presentation of key elements of the target language, controlled practice of the target language, viewing an example of the ideal final productive task, and error correction and feedback – but essentially the idea behind TBL is that learners are working together to achieve some task (Harmer (2), 2007).

In this sense, higher-order thinking skills, including application, analysis, evaluation and creation of original work, are at the center of what is occurring in the language learning classroom. The next section details some useful activities that can be used for different purposes during a TBL lesson.

Classroom activities for TBL lessons

Fluency and different types of practice

Achieving communicative competence focuses more on the fluency aspect of language learning (i.e. how natural-sounding the communication is) as opposed to accuracy. While accuracy is still crucial to competency, the communicative nature of TBL favors fluency and uses language focus areas for accuracy practice.

Some features of fluency activities are listed below:

 Reflect natural use of language
 Focus on achieving communication
 Require meaningful use of language
 Require the use of communication strategies
 Produce language that might not be predictable
 Seek to link language use to context (Richards, p. 14)

To demonstrate the distinction more clearly, contrast the above activities with these accuracy-based activities below:

 Reflect classroom use of language
 Focus on the formation of correct examples of language
 Practice language out of context
 Practice small samples of language
 Do not require meaningful communication
 Control choice of language (Richards, p. 14)

Additionally, a distinction that is also made is between mechanical, meaningful and communicative practice – also known as controlled, less controlled and freer practice respectively.

Typically, course materials will progress from mechanical to communicative, closely mirroring sequencing found in Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) lessons. As students move from the initial pre-communicative activity types gradually towards the communicative activity-types, they also progress from accuracy-focused activities towards using the language for communicative purposes. Activities such as information gap, jigsaw, task-completion,

information-gathering, opinion-sharing, information-transfer, reasoning-gap, and role plays, all constitute communicative activities.

Examples of each activity type are listed below:

Information gap: Learners are given A-B roles and they must ask questions to find the missing information.
Jigsaw: Learners work as an entire class to assemble a narrative that has been broken into smaller parts.
Task-completion: Learners are given a blank map and they work in groups to design a city with certain features.
Information-gathering: Learners design and administer a survey in small groups.
Information-transfer: The principle is that one form of communication is transferred into another form. For example, learners use the map created in the "task-completion" activity and write a description of how to get from one place to another.
Reasoning-gap: Lateral thinking exercises where learners are provided limited information, but must deduce possible or correct answers. For example, consider the following puzzle:
- A man is standing by a river with a wolf, a sheep, and some vegetables. He wants to get everything across the river, but he has a small boat that cannot carry all three things at one time.
  
  The wolf will eat the sheep if the man goes away, and the sheep will eat the vegetables if the man goes away. Discuss how the man can get across the river without losing any of his belongings. (Liao, pgs. 4-5).
Role play: Learners now use the map and description from the task-completion and information-transfer activities to act as tourists in other groups' cities. They will ask for directions, ask for suggestions on things to do, etc. (Richards, pgs.18-20).

The teacher's role in Communicative Language Teaching

Not only must teachers consider what is happening in the EFL classroom in respect to the learners, but teachers must also consider the role they play and the effects it has on their own thinking. Richards presents Jacobs and Farrell's (2003) key components of the shift towards teachers incorporating CLT in language learning:

Focusing greater attention on the role of learners (teacher-centered instruction to learner-centered instruction).
Focusing greater attention on the learning process rather than the products that learners produce (product-oriented to process-oriented instruction).
Focusing greater attention on the social nature of learning rather than on students as separate, decontextualized individuals
Focusing greater attention on diversity among learners and viewing these difference as resources to be recognized, catered to, and appreciated (the study of individual differences).
Focusing greater attention on the views of those internal to the classroom (qualitative research, which highlights the subjective and affective, the participants’ insider views, and the uniqueness of each context).
Focusing on connecting the school with the world beyond as means of promoting holistic learning.
Helping students to understand the purpose of learning and develop their own purpose
A whole-to-part orientation instead of a part-to-whole approach (beginning with meaningful whole text and then helping students understand the various features that enable texts to function, e.g., the choice of words and the text’s organizational structure).
An emphasis on the importance of meaning rather than drills and other forms of rote learning
A view of learning as a lifelong process rather than something done to prepare students for an exam (Richards, pgs. 24-25).

What this shift in thinking on the part of teachers and researchers has resulted in is a new understanding of the learning process. The emphasis on the student-centered learning environment has given rise to the belief that instruction should include previously disregarded aspects, such as appreciation and attention to learner diversity, and the need for developing higher-order, or critical, thinking skills. Thus, CLT and the associated methodology, TBL, complement contemporary research and understanding of learning theory.

References

Brandl, K. (2008). Communicative language teaching in action: putting principles to work. Prentice Hall. Print.

Harmer, J. (2). (2007). The practice of English language teaching. 4th Ed. Pearson Longman: Essex, UK. Print.

Richards, J.C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Retrieved from www.cambridge.org.

Liao, X.Q. (n.d.). Information gap in communicative classrooms. University of Auckland: New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/01-39-4-h.pdf