Teaching Critical Thinking to EFL Learners

This page covers the theories behind Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and some common myths associated with SLA.

 

Second Language Acquisition Theory

First of all, before examining approaches to EFL teaching and learning, it is necessary to understand how language is acquired. Early SLA theorists, while proposing vastly different frameworks for understanding SLA, reached consensus on a few main points:

 

 "What is being acquired in SLA is a ‘rule-governed’ language system.

 How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes.

 Why some learners are more…successful in SLA than others relates primarily to the age of the learner. (Saville-Troike, 2006, pgs. 45-46)”

 

As SLA progressed beyond the 1960s, theorists still maintained the above points, but began placing more emphasis on the internal factors contributing to SLA. Essentially the points above that were previously agreed upon by early SLA theorists evolved into the following three hypotheses:

 

 “what is being acquired in SLA is a system for conveying meaning,

 how language is acquired importantly involves creative learner involvement in communication, and

 understanding of SLA processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumstances of use. (Saville-Troike, 2006, pg. 62)”

 

Of particular interest regarding the evolution of SLA theory is the greater importance placed over time on the learner’s capacity to be actively involved in their own learning, as the second premise above states, and also the social nature of SLA, which was a foundation of the earliest SLA theorists (Saville-Troike, 2006).

 

Psychologists interested in SLA have proposed theories concerning the mental processes involved in SLA and developed an influential framework known as Information Processing (IP). There are many assumptions, but most notable the purposes of relating SLA to critical thinking and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are the assumptions listed below: 

 

1. “Second language learning is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill.

2. Learning of a skill initially demands learners’ attention [controlled processing].

3. Controlled processing requires considerable…attentional effort.

4. Learners go from controlled processing to automatic processing with practice.

5. …development from controlled to automatic processing [frees] learners’ controlled processing capacity for new information and higher-order skills (Saville-Troike, 2006, pg. 73).”

 

What this entails is, because SLA is a complex skill requiring significant, focused effort, teachers can harness the attentional effort of their learners to create fluency practice opportunities where learners are actively engaged in their own learning. Essentially, EFL teachers can, during the processing of target language learning, draw learners’ attention to gaps in their knowledge, encourage learners to test hypotheses about the target language through interaction with their peers in communicative activities, and openly discuss language learning by seeking input and solving problems collaboratively during classroom tasks (Saville-Troike, 2006). Traditionally, controlled processing may have more in common with lower-order thinking skills according to Bloom’s taxonomy as this process involves perception of and input of new language, sorting new knowledge, and retrieving learned language. However, automatic processing engages higher-order thinking skills and this is where CLT reveals its benefits for use in the EFL classroom.

 

Myths of Second Language Acquisition

There are many myths and misconceptions surrounding Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Rather than list all of them, I am presenting the myths most closely associated with SLA and how cognition and critical thinking play a role in a learners' progress.

 

1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation.

This may be somewhat true for first language acquisition, but heavy immersion (i.e. the home environment) and the lower cognitive stages of infants and toddlers are the factors that led early theorists to believe that imitation would work for older learners. However, recent studies have proven that first language acquisition and second language acquisition occupy vastly different cognitive functions and immersion and imitation will not result in gains for learners beyond infancy and late infancy. (Nunan, p. 3)

 

2. People with high IQs are better at learning languages.

Social, emotional and cognitive factors play a far greater role in SLA than factors such as IQ, country of origin, economic situation, etc. In fact, a learner's first language literacy is much more important factor. Finally, IQ tests typically measure non-linguistic capabilities.  (Noseworthy, et al., slides 15-16)

 

3. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success.

The research does not support this theory, except where it concerns pronunciation as pronunciation is more closely related to motor skills which are developing in the early stages of a child's growth. In fact, quite often older students make greater gains in a shorter period of time due to their ability to cope with cognitive tasks associated with SLA.  (McLaughlin, pgs. 5-6)

 

4. Most of the mistakes made by second language learners are due to interference from their first language.

There is transfer between the native language and the second language, but research has shown that greater literacy in the native language means that second language acquisition is more successful because the concepts are easily understood in their native language. (Haynes, slides 29-31)

 

References

Haynes, J. (21 September 2010). Myths of second language acquisition webinar. ASCD. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/professional-development/webinars/judie-haynes- 

McLaughlin, B. (1992). Myths and misconceptions about second language learning: what every teacher needs to unlearn. University of California: Santa Cruz. Retrieved from https://www.usc.edu/dept/education/CMMR/FullText/McLaughlinMyths.pdf

Noseworthy, E.J., et al. (2009). Myths and realities: best practices for ESL students. Department of Education: Newfoundland, Labrador. Retrieved from 

http://www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/k12/curriculum/guides/esl/myths_reality.pdf

Nunan, D. (2011). The 7 myths of language learning: challenging common beliefs of language acquisition for use in business. Global English. Retrieved from http://static.globalenglish.com/files/reports/GlobEng_Whitepap_Nunan_EN_US_FINAL.pdfq=files/reports/

GlobEng_Whitepap_Nunan_EN_US_FINAL.pdf

Saville-Troike, M. (2006). Introducing second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK. Print.